Submerges the error case of an Either
into the ZIO
.
Submerges the error case of an Either
into the ZIO
. The inverse
operation of IO.either
.
Accesses the environment of the effect.
Accesses the environment of the effect.
val portNumber = effect.access(_.config.portNumber)
Effectfully accesses the environment of the effect.
Returns an effect that adopts the specified fiber as a child of the fiber running this effect.
Returns an effect that adopts the specified fiber as a child of the fiber running this effect. Note that adoption will succeed only if the specified fiber is not a child of any other fiber.
The returned effect will succeed with true if the fiber has been adopted, and false otherwise.
See also zio.ZIO.disown.
Makes an explicit check to see if the fiber has been interrupted, and if so, performs self-interruption
Awaits all child fibers of the fiber executing the effect.
Uncurried version.
Uncurried version. Doesn't offer curried syntax and have worse type-inference characteristics, but guarantees no extra allocations of intermediate zio.ZIO.BracketAcquire and zio.ZIO.BracketRelease objects.
When this effect represents acquisition of a resource (for example,
opening a file, launching a thread, etc.), bracket
can be used to ensure
the acquisition is not interrupted and the resource is always released.
When this effect represents acquisition of a resource (for example,
opening a file, launching a thread, etc.), bracket
can be used to ensure
the acquisition is not interrupted and the resource is always released.
The function does two things:
1. Ensures this effect, which acquires the resource, will not be
interrupted. Of course, acquisition may fail for internal reasons (an
uncaught exception).
2. Ensures the release
effect will not be interrupted, and will be
executed so long as this effect successfully acquires the resource.
In between acquisition and release of the resource, the use
effect is
executed.
If the release
effect fails, then the entire effect will fail even
if the use
effect succeeds. If this fail-fast behavior is not desired,
errors produced by the release
effect can be caught and ignored.
openFile("data.json").bracket(closeFile) { file => for { header <- readHeader(file) ... } yield result }
Uncurried version.
Uncurried version. Doesn't offer curried syntax and has worse type-inference characteristics, but guarantees no extra allocations of intermediate zio.ZIO.BracketExitAcquire and zio.ZIO.BracketExitRelease objects.
Acquires a resource, uses the resource, and then releases the resource.
Acquires a resource, uses the resource, and then releases the resource.
Neither the acquisition nor the release will be interrupted, and the
resource is guaranteed to be released, so long as the acquire
effect
succeeds. If use
fails, then after release, the returned effect will fail
with the same error.
Checks the interrupt status, and produces the effect returned by the specified callback.
Checks the ZIO Tracing status, and produces the effect returned by the specified callback.
Provides access to the list of child fibers supervised by this fiber.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, collecting the the successful values and discarding the empty cases.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, collecting the
the successful values and discarding the empty cases. For a parallel version, see collectPar
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the
results. For a parallel version, see collectAllPar
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the
results. For a parallel version, see collectAllPar
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and collect the
results. For a parallel version, see collectAllPar
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll
.
Unlike collectAllPar
, this method will use at most n
fibers.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll_
.
Unlike collectAllPar_
, this method will use at most n
fibers.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll_
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, and discard the
results. For a sequential version, see collectAll_
.
Evaluate and run each effect in the structure and collect discarding failed ones.
Evaluate and run each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect discarding failed ones.
Evaluate and run each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect discarding failed ones.
Evaluate and run each effect in the structure in parallel, and collect discarding failed ones.
Unlike collectAllSuccessesPar
, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Evaluate each effect in the structure with collectAll
, and collect
the results with given partial function.
Evaluate each effect in the structure with collectAllPar
, and collect
the results with given partial function.
Evaluate each effect in the structure with collectAllPar
, and collect
the results with given partial function.
Evaluate each effect in the structure with collectAllPar
, and collect
the results with given partial function.
Unlike collectAllWithPar
, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and discard the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and discard the
results. For a parallel version, see collectAllPar_
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and discard the results.
Evaluate each effect in the structure from left to right, and discard the
results. For a parallel version, see collectAllPar_
.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, collecting the the successful values and discarding the empty cases.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, collecting the the successful values and discarding the empty cases.
Evaluate each effect in the structure in parallel, collecting the the successful values and discarding the empty cases.
Unlike collectPar
, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Returns information about the current fiber, such as its identity.
Constructs an effect based on information about the current fiber, such as its identity.
Returns an effect that dies with the specified Throwable
.
Returns an effect that dies with the specified Throwable
.
This method can be used for terminating a fiber because a defect has been
detected in the code.
Returns an effect that dies with a java.lang.RuntimeException having the specified text message.
Returns an effect that dies with a java.lang.RuntimeException having the specified text message. This method can be used for terminating a fiber because a defect has been detected in the code.
Disowns the specified fiber, which means that when this fiber exits, the specified fiber will not be interrupted.
Disowns the specified fiber, which means that when this fiber exits, the specified fiber will not be interrupted. Disowned fibers become new root fibers, and are not terminated automatically when any other fibers ends.
Disowns all children.
Returns an effect from a zio.Exit value.
Imports a synchronous side-effect into a pure ZIO
value, translating any
thrown exceptions into typed failed effects creating with ZIO.fail
.
Imports a synchronous side-effect into a pure ZIO
value, translating any
thrown exceptions into typed failed effects creating with ZIO.fail
.
def putStrLn(line: String): Task[Unit] = Task.effect(println(line))
Imports an asynchronous side-effect into a pure ZIO
value.
Imports an asynchronous side-effect into a pure ZIO
value. See
effectAsyncMaybe
for the more expressive variant of this function that
can return a value synchronously.
The callback function ZIO[R, E, A] => Any
must be called at most once.
The list of fibers, that may complete the async callback, is used to provide better diagnostics.
Imports an asynchronous side-effect into a ZIO effect.
Imports an asynchronous side-effect into a ZIO effect. The side-effect has the option of returning the value synchronously, which is useful in cases where it cannot be determined if the effect is synchronous or asynchronous until the side-effect is actually executed. The effect also has the option of returning a canceler, which will be used by the runtime to cancel the asynchronous effect if the fiber executing the effect is interrupted.
If the register function returns a value synchronously, then the callback
function ZIO[R, E, A] => Any
must not be called. Otherwise the callback
function must be called at most once.
The list of fibers, that may complete the async callback, is used to provide better diagnostics.
Imports an asynchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value.
Imports an asynchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value. This formulation is
necessary when the effect is itself expressed in terms of ZIO
.
Imports an asynchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value, possibly returning
the value synchronously.
Imports an asynchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value, possibly returning
the value synchronously.
If the register function returns a value synchronously, then the callback
function ZIO[R, E, A] => Any
must not be called. Otherwise the callback
function must be called at most once.
The list of fibers, that may complete the async callback, is used to provide better diagnostics.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
When no environment is required (i.e., when R == Any) it is conceptually equivalent to flatten(effect(io))
.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require
effects. The effect must not throw any exceptions. When no environment is required (i.e., when R == Any)
it is conceptually equivalent to flatten(effectTotal(zio))
. If you wonder if the effect throws exceptions,
do not use this method, use Task.effectSuspend or ZIO.effectSuspend.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
The effect must not throw any exceptions. When no environment is required (i.e., when R == Any)
it is conceptually equivalent to flatten(effectTotal(zio))
. If you wonder if the effect throws exceptions,
do not use this method, use Task.effectSuspend or ZIO.effectSuspend.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
Returns a lazily constructed effect, whose construction may itself require effects.
When no environment is required (i.e., when R == Any) it is conceptually equivalent to flatten(effect(io))
.
Imports a total synchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value.
Imports a total synchronous effect into a pure ZIO
value.
The effect must not throw any exceptions. If you wonder if the effect
throws exceptions, then do not use this method, use Task.effect,
IO.effect, or ZIO.effect.
val nanoTime: UIO[Long] = IO.effectTotal(System.nanoTime())
Accesses the whole environment of the effect.
Returns an effect that models failure with the specified error.
Returns an effect that models failure with the specified error.
The moral equivalent of throw
for pure code.
Returns the Fiber.Id
of the fiber executing the effect that calls this method.
Filters the collection using the specified effectual predicate.
Filters the collection using the specified effectual predicate, removing all elements that satisfy the predicate.
Returns an effectful function that extracts out the first element of a tuple.
Returns an effect that races this effect with all the specified effects, yielding the value of the first effect to succeed with a value.
Returns an effect that races this effect with all the specified effects, yielding the value of the first effect to succeed with a value. Losers of the race will be interrupted immediately
Returns an effect that first executes the outer effect, and then executes the inner effect, returning the value from the inner effect, and effectively flattening a nested effect.
Folds an Iterable[A] using an effectual function f, working sequentially from left to right.
Folds an Iterable[A] using an effectual function f, working sequentially from right to left.
Applies the function f
to each element of the NonEmptyChunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new NonEmptyChunk[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the NonEmptyChunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new NonEmptyChunk[B]
.
For a parallel version of this method, see foreachPar
.
If you do not need the results, see foreach_
for a more efficient implementation.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
For a parallel version of this method, see foreachPar
.
If you do not need the results, see foreach_
for a more efficient implementation.
Applies the function f
if the argument is non-empty and
returns the results in a new Option[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and
returns the results in a new List[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and
returns the results in a new List[B]
.
For a parallel version of this method, see foreachPar
.
If you do not need the results, see foreach_
for a more efficient implementation.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and returns
the result in a new List[B]
using the specified execution strategy.
Applies the function f
to each element of the NonEmptyChunk[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new NonEmptyChunk[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the NonEmptyChunk[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new NonEmptyChunk[B]
.
For a sequential version of this method, see foreach
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
For a sequential version of this method, see foreach
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new List[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new List[B]
.
For a sequential version of this method, see foreach
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new List[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
in parallel,
and returns the results in a new List[B]
.
Unlike foreachPar
, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
Unlike foreachPar_
, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
For a sequential version of this method, see foreach_
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects in parallel, discarding the results.
For a sequential version of this method, see foreach_
.
Optimized to avoid keeping full tree of effects, so that method could be able to handle large input sequences. Behaves almost like this code:
as.foldLeft(ZIO.unit) { (acc, a) => acc.zipParLeft(f(a)) }
Additionally, interrupts all effects on any failure.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Chunk[A]
and
returns the results in a new Chunk[B]
.
For a parallel version of this method, see foreachPar
.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects sequentially.
Applies the function f
to each element of the Iterable[A]
and runs
produced effects sequentially.
Equivalent to foreach(as)(f).unit
, but without the cost of building
the list of results.
Returns an effect that forks all of the specified values, and returns a composite fiber that produces a list of their results, in order.
Returns an effect that forks all of the specified values, and returns a composite fiber that produces unit.
Returns an effect that forks all of the specified values, and returns a composite fiber that produces unit. This version is faster than forkAll in cases where the results of the forked fibers are not needed.
Lifts an Either
into a ZIO
value.
Creates a ZIO
value that represents the exit value of the specified
fiber.
Creates a ZIO
value that represents the exit value of the specified
fiber.
Lifts a function R => A
into a URIO[R, A]
.
Lifts a function returning Future into an effect that requires the input to the function.
Lifts an effectful function whose effect requires no environment into an effect that requires the input to the function.
Imports a function that creates a scala.concurrent.Future from an
scala.concurrent.ExecutionContext into a ZIO
.
Imports a function that creates a scala.concurrent.Future from an
scala.concurrent.ExecutionContext into a ZIO
.
Imports a function that creates a scala.concurrent.Future from an
scala.concurrent.ExecutionContext into a ZIO
. The provided
ExecutionContext
will interrupt the Future
between asynchronous
operations such as map
and flatMap
if this effect is interrupted. Note
that no attempt will be made to interrupt a Future
blocking on a
synchronous operation and that the Future
must be created using the
provided ExecutionContext
.
WARNING: this uses the blocking Future#get, consider using fromCompletionStage
WARNING: this uses the blocking Future#get, consider using fromCompletionStage
Lifts an Option
into a ZIO
.
Lifts a Try
into a ZIO
.
Lifts an Option into a ZIO, if the option is not defined it fails with NoSuchElementException.
Returns an effect that models failure with the specified Cause
.
Returns an effect that models failure with the specified Cause
.
Returns an effect that models failure with the specified Cause
.
This version takes in a lazily-evaluated trace that can be attached to the Cause
via Cause.Traced
.
Returns the identity effectful function, which performs no effects
Runs onTrue
if the result of b
is true
and onFalse
otherwise.
Like never, but fibers that running this effect won't be garbage collected unless interrupted.
Returns an effect that is interrupted as if by the fiber calling this method.
Interrupts all child fibers of the fiber executing the effect.
Returns an effect that is interrupted as if by the specified fiber.
Prefix form of ZIO#interruptible
.
Makes the effect interruptible, but passes it a restore function that can be used to restore the inherited interruptibility from whatever region the effect is composed into.
Iterates with the specified effectual function.
Iterates with the specified effectual function. The moral equivalent of:
var s = initial while (cont(s)) { s = body(s) } s
Returns an effect with the value on the left part.
Returns an effect that will execute the specified effect fully on the provided executor, before returning to the default executor.
Returns an effect that will execute the specified effect fully on the provided executor, before returning to the default executor. See ZIO!.lock.
Loops with the specified effectual function, collecting the results into a list.
Loops with the specified effectual function, collecting the results into a list. The moral equivalent of:
var s = initial var as = List.empty[A] while (cont(s)) { as = body(s) :: as s = inc(s) } as.reverse
Loops with the specified effectual function purely for its effects.
Loops with the specified effectual function purely for its effects. The moral equivalent of:
var s = initial while (cont(s)) { body(s) s = inc(s) }
Sequentially zips the specified effects using the specified combiner function.
Sequentially zips the specified effects using the specified combiner function.
Sequentially zips the specified effects using the specified combiner function.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function. If any effect
fails, then the other effects will be interrupted.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function. If any effect
fails, then the other effects will be interrupted.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function.
Returns an effect that executes the specified effects in parallel,
combining their results with the specified f
function. If any effect
fails, then the other effects will be interrupted.
Returns a memoized version of the specified effectual function.
Merges an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO, working sequentially.
Merges an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO, working in parallel.
Merges an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO, working in parallel.
Due to the parallel nature of this combinator, f
must be both:
- commutative: f(a, b) == f(b, a)
- associative: f(a, f(b, c)) == f(f(a, b), c)
It's unsafe to execute side effects inside f
, as f
may be executed
more than once for some of in
elements during effect execution.
Merges an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO, working in with up to n
fibers in parallel.
Merges an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO, working in with up to n
fibers in parallel.
Due to the parallel nature of this combinator, f
must be both:
- commutative: f(a, b) == f(b, a)
- associative: f(a, f(b, c)) == f(f(a, b), c)
It's unsafe to execute side effects inside f
, as f
may be executed
more than once for some of in
elements during effect execution.
Returns a effect that will never produce anything.
Returns a effect that will never produce anything. The moral equivalent of
while(true) {}
, only without the wasted CPU cycles. Fibers that suspended
running this effect are automatically garbage collected on the JVM,
because they cannot be reactivated.
Returns an effect with the empty value.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Collects all successes and failures in a tupled fashion.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Collects all successes and failures in parallel and returns the result as
a tuple.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Feeds elements of type A
to a function f
that returns an effect.
Collects all successes and failures in parallel and returns the result as
a tuple.
Unlike partitionPar, this method will use at most up to n
fibers.
Given an environment R
, returns a function that can supply the
environment to programs that require it, removing their need for any
specific environment.
Given an environment R
, returns a function that can supply the
environment to programs that require it, removing their need for any
specific environment.
This is similar to dependency injection, and the provide
function can be
thought of as inject
.
Races an IO[E, A]
against zero or more other effects.
Races an IO[E, A]
against zero or more other effects. Yields either the
first success or the last failure.
Reduces an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO
, working sequentially.
Reduces an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO
, working in parallel.
Reduces an Iterable[IO]
to a single IO
, working in up to n
fibers in parallel.
Replicates the given effect n
times.
Replicates the given effect n
times. If 0 or negative numbers are given,
an empty Iterable
will be returned. This method is more efficient than
using List.fill
or similar methods, because the returned Iterable
consumes only a small amount of heap regardless of n
.
Requires that the given ZIO[R, E, Option[A]]
contain a value.
Requires that the given ZIO[R, E, Option[A]]
contain a value. If there is no
value, then the specified error will be raised.
Acquires a resource, uses the resource, and then releases the resource.
Acquires a resource, uses the resource, and then releases the resource.
However, unlike bracket
, the separation of these phases allows
the acquisition to be interruptible.
Useful for concurrent data structures and other cases where the 'deallocator' can tell if the allocation succeeded or not just by inspecting internal / external state.
Returns an effect with the value on the right part.
Returns an effect that accesses the runtime, which can be used to (unsafely) execute tasks.
Returns an effect that accesses the runtime, which can be used to (unsafely) execute tasks. This is useful for integration with legacy code that must call back into ZIO code.
Returns an effectful function that extracts out the second element of a tuple.
Accesses the specified service in the environment of the effect.
Accesses the specified services in the environment of the effect.
Accesses the specified services in the environment of the effect.
Accesses the specified services in the environment of the effect.
Returns an effect that suspends for the specified duration.
Returns an effect that suspends for the specified duration. This method is asynchronous, and does not actually block the fiber executing the effect.
Returns an effect with the optional value.
Returns an effect that models success with the specified value.
Returns an effectful function that merely swaps the elements in a Tuple2
.
Capture ZIO trace at the current point
Prefix form of ZIO#traced
.
Sequentially zips the specified effects.
Sequentially zips the specified effects. Specialized version of mapN.
Sequentially zips the specified effects.
Sequentially zips the specified effects. Specialized version of mapN.
Sequentially zips the specified effects.
Sequentially zips the specified effects. Specialized version of mapN.
Zips the specified effects in parallel.
Zips the specified effects in parallel. Specialized version of mapParN.
Zips the specified effects in parallel.
Zips the specified effects in parallel. Specialized version of mapParN.
Zips the specified effects in parallel.
Zips the specified effects in parallel. Specialized version of mapParN.
Prefix form of ZIO#uninterruptible
.
Makes the effect uninterruptible, but passes it a restore function that can be used to restore the inherited interruptibility from whatever region the effect is composed into.
An effect that succeeds with a unit value.
The moral equivalent of if (!p) exp
The moral equivalent of if (!p) exp
when p
has side-effects
The inverse operation IO.sandboxed
The inverse operation IO.sandboxed
Terminates with exceptions on the Left
side of the Either
error, if it
exists. Otherwise extracts the contained IO[E, A]
Prefix form of ZIO#untraced
.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
and accumulates all errors in error
channel or successes in success channel.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
and accumulates all errors in error
channel or successes in success channel.
This combinator is lossy meaning that if there are errors all successes will be lost. To retain all information please use partition.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
until it succeeds.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
until it succeeds. Returns first success
or the accumulation of all errors.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
, in parallel, until it succeeds.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
, in parallel, until it succeeds. Returns
first success or the accumulation of all errors.
In case of success all other running fibers are terminated.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
and accumulates, in parallel, all errors
in error channel or successes in success channel.
Feeds elements of type A
to f
and accumulates, in parallel, all errors
in error channel or successes in success channel.
This combinator is lossy meaning that if there are errors all successes will be lost. To retain all information please use partitionPar.
The moral equivalent of if (p) exp
Runs an effect when the supplied PartialFunction
matches for the given value, otherwise does nothing.
Runs an effect when the supplied PartialFunction
matches for the given effectful value, otherwise does nothing.
The moral equivalent of if (p) exp
when p
has side-effects
Returns an effect that yields to the runtime system, starting on a fresh stack.
Returns an effect that yields to the runtime system, starting on a fresh stack. Manual use of this method can improve fairness, at the cost of overhead.